Saturday, May 12, 2012
Final years
Patron of arts and literature
Although Akbar was illiterate, he had a fine literary taste. He took interest in
philosophy, theology, history, and politics. He maintained a library full of
books on various subjects, and was fond of the society of scholars, poets and
philosophers, who read books to him aloud, and thus enabled him to be conversant
with Sufi, Christian, Zoroastrian, Hindu and Jain literature. He used to invite
scholars from different religions for discussions with him.
In his book, "Akbar, The Great Mogul" Vincent Smith wrote that "anybody who heard him arguing with acuteness and lucidity on a subject of debate would have credited him with wide literary knowledge and profound erudition and never would have suspected him of illiteracy". He was a patron to many literary figures, including the brothers Feizi and Abul-Fazel. The former was commissioned by Akbar to translate a number of Sanskrit scientific works into Persian; and the latter produced the Akbarnama, an enduring record of the emperor's reign. It is also said that Akbar employed Jerome Xavier (nephew of Francis Xavier) , a Jesuit missionary, to translate the four Gospels of the New Testament into Persian. He commissioned the Tarikh-i-Alfi, or "The History of a Thousand Years" to celebrate the year 1000 (1591-92CE) on the Muslim calendar, though only about thirty of the original hundreds of paintings and pages of the manuscript now remain.
Akbar also possessed a fair taste of art, architecture and mechanical works. Many pieces, including the magnificent Hamzanama, were produced under Akbar. Akbar is also credited with many inventions and improvements in the manufacture of matchlocks. He built a vast administrative machinery on a detailed plan. He looked, as we know from the Ain-i-Akbari, "upon the smallest details as mirrors capable of reflecting a comprehensive outline.
In his book, "Akbar, The Great Mogul" Vincent Smith wrote that "anybody who heard him arguing with acuteness and lucidity on a subject of debate would have credited him with wide literary knowledge and profound erudition and never would have suspected him of illiteracy". He was a patron to many literary figures, including the brothers Feizi and Abul-Fazel. The former was commissioned by Akbar to translate a number of Sanskrit scientific works into Persian; and the latter produced the Akbarnama, an enduring record of the emperor's reign. It is also said that Akbar employed Jerome Xavier (nephew of Francis Xavier) , a Jesuit missionary, to translate the four Gospels of the New Testament into Persian. He commissioned the Tarikh-i-Alfi, or "The History of a Thousand Years" to celebrate the year 1000 (1591-92CE) on the Muslim calendar, though only about thirty of the original hundreds of paintings and pages of the manuscript now remain.
Akbar also possessed a fair taste of art, architecture and mechanical works. Many pieces, including the magnificent Hamzanama, were produced under Akbar. Akbar is also credited with many inventions and improvements in the manufacture of matchlocks. He built a vast administrative machinery on a detailed plan. He looked, as we know from the Ain-i-Akbari, "upon the smallest details as mirrors capable of reflecting a comprehensive outline.
Personality
Akbar is said to have been a benevolent and wise ruler, a man of new ideas, and
a sound judge of character. As a ruler, he was able to win the love and
reverence of his subjects.
Abul Fazal, and even the hostile critic Badayuni, described him as having a commanding personality. He was fearless in the chase as well as in the field of battle, and, "like Alexander of Macedon, was always ready to risk his life, regardless of political consequences". He often plunged his horse into the full-flooded river during the rainy seasons and safely crossed over to the other side. Though a mighty conqueror, he did not usually indulge in cruelty. He is said to have been affectionate towards his relatives. He pardoned his brother Hakim, who was a repented rebel. However, on some rare occasions, he dealt cruelly with the offenders, as is shown by his behavior towards his maternal uncle, Muazzam, and his foster-brother, Adam Khan.
He is said to have been extremely moderate in his diet. According to records, he was fond of fruits and had little liking for meat, which he ceased to eat altogether in his later years.
Many of the historians are of the opinion that Emperor Akbar possessed inordinate "lust" for women. It is also believed that he was an alcoholic as well. He had a harem of over 5000 women.
... Akbar habitually drank hard. The good father had boldly dared to reprove the emperor sharply for his licentious relations with women. Akbar instead of resenting the priests audacity, blushingly excused himself.
Abul Fazal, and even the hostile critic Badayuni, described him as having a commanding personality. He was fearless in the chase as well as in the field of battle, and, "like Alexander of Macedon, was always ready to risk his life, regardless of political consequences". He often plunged his horse into the full-flooded river during the rainy seasons and safely crossed over to the other side. Though a mighty conqueror, he did not usually indulge in cruelty. He is said to have been affectionate towards his relatives. He pardoned his brother Hakim, who was a repented rebel. However, on some rare occasions, he dealt cruelly with the offenders, as is shown by his behavior towards his maternal uncle, Muazzam, and his foster-brother, Adam Khan.
He is said to have been extremely moderate in his diet. According to records, he was fond of fruits and had little liking for meat, which he ceased to eat altogether in his later years.
Many of the historians are of the opinion that Emperor Akbar possessed inordinate "lust" for women. It is also believed that he was an alcoholic as well. He had a harem of over 5000 women.
... Akbar habitually drank hard. The good father had boldly dared to reprove the emperor sharply for his licentious relations with women. Akbar instead of resenting the priests audacity, blushingly excused himself.
Restoration
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The other Rajput kingdoms also gave their daughters' hands to Akbar, until only two Rajput clans remained against him, the Sisodiyas of Mewar and Hadas (Chauhans) of Ranthambore. The Rajputs were a famed group of Hindu warriors, who, like the Afghans took opium prior to battle to ward off fear. Entering into an alliance with these groups helped to secure Akbar's control, as for the next 100 years Rajput soldiers served on behalf of the Mughal empire.
Finally Raja Man Singh of Amber went with Akbar to meet the Hada leader, Surjan Hada, to effect an alliance. Surjan grudgingly accepted an alliance on the condition that Akbar did not marry any of his daughters. Surjan later moved his residence to Banaras.
Akbar is recorded as saying "A monarch should be ever intent on conquest, lest his neighbours rise in arms against him", and he went on to expand the Mughal empire to include Malwa (1562), Gujarat (1572), Bengal (1574), Kabul (1581), Kashmir (1586), and Kandesh (1601), among others. Akbar installed a governor over each of the conquered provinces, under his authority.
Akbar did not want to have his court tied too closely to the city of Delhi. He ordered the court moved to Fatehpur Sikri, near Agra, but when this site proved untenable, he set up a roaming camp that let him keep a close eye on what was happening throughout the empire. He developed and encouraged commerce, in part by abolishing religious restrictions on the conduct of business between Muslims and Hindus.
Akbar's tax reforms were an especially noteworthy achievement, and formed the basis of the Mughal Empire's immense wealth in succeeding generations. His officials prepared a detailed and accurate cadaster (land register) noting each land parcel's soil quality, water access, etc., and then converted those characteristics to money, taking account of the different prevailing prices for various crops in each region of the Empire. This was a distinct improvement on earlier land tax systems, including the Egyptian and Roman ones, which had levied land taxes as an in-kind share of the harvest. By making land tax payments more accurately reflect the economic rent of the land in money rather than the actual harvest, Akbar's innovations had the effect of stimulating both investment in improvements and more productive use of the land. He also abolished the jizyah (a discriminatory tax on non-Muslims) and gave strict orders to prevent extortion by tax collectors. The salutary economic effect of these reforms was such that the revered Qing emperor Kang Xi adopted similar measures a century later in China, with similar success.
Adham Khan and Maham Anga
With the demise of Bairam Khan, Maham Anga saw an opportunity for herself, and
attempted to wrest the control that Bairam had. Her attempts at absolute rule,
however, were not particularly successful.
In February 1561, her son Adham was sent to capture Malwa, which was being incompetently ruled by Baz Bahadur. Baz Bahadur was a talented musician but had no ability to govern an area, and many of the people of the area had fled to Mughal territories, alerting the Mughals to the possibility of taking the area. As the army of Adham Khan approached Baz Bahadur fled, leaving behind his wealth and his wives in their Harem, and instructions that they were to be killed if the city of Sarangpur (now a part of the Rajgarh District) fell to the Mughals. However, despite the best attempts by the Eunuch in charge of the Harem, many of the women survived; even Rupmati, who was famed through many of Baz Bahadurs songs for her beauty, survived multiple slash wounds to be captured by the invading Mughals. However, when Adham Khan came to claim his prize, Rupmati drank poison rather than be raped by Akbar's brother.
However, aside from this instance when he was thwarted, Adham engaged in some thoroughly grotesque abuses of the captured Harem and populace. The least attractive members of the women were brought before the senior members of the invading army and killed, as they drank alcohol, took opium pellets, and generally treated the event as if it were a festive occasion. Badauni records that on at least one occasion members present tried to stop the slaughter but were shackled. The slaughter was not only of the women in the harem, and Badauni records that "Sayyids and Sheikhs came out to meet him with their Qur'ans in hand, but Khan put them all to death and burnt them". Besides, Adham kept the vast majority of the wealth and captives for himself and sent a mere three elephants to his Emperor. Along with the elephants, Akbar received word of what Adham had done, and became enraged. He decided to ride out to Malwar himself, along with a small band of loyal soldiers, racing and beating a group of courtiers sent by Maham Anga to warn Adham of Akbar's rage.
Adham became terrified and quickly begged for Akbar's forgiveness. Akbar forgave him, and received the booty he had seized. However, Adham secretly kept two of the women he decided were the most attractive in his own Harem. When Akbar found out about this, Maham Anga killed the women, fearing what they might reveal about Adham to Akbar.
These events left Akbar with no option but to begin assuming absolute control for himself. The conflict came to a head when in 1562, Atkah Khan, an Afghan appointed by Akbar to be the equivalent of Prime Minister, was dealing with affairs of his position when Adham burst forth, had Atkah Khan stabbed, and tried to storm the Harem of Akbar. The Eunuch who guarded the section went in, closed the door and locked it from the inside. Akbar became aware of the disturbance, and entered the room. Here Adham laid his hand on his foster brother's arm, a sign of apparent disrespect, to which Akbar responded by punching him in the face, possibly knocking him unconscious. Seeing his Prime Minister stabbed, Akbar had had enough of Adham and ordered that he be thrown from a height, over a parapet. This failed to kill him, so Akbar ensured that the second attempt succeed by ordering he be dropped head first. Akbar then went straight to Maham Anga and informed her that her son was dead. With this act, the 19 year old Akbar assumed complete control over his empire
In February 1561, her son Adham was sent to capture Malwa, which was being incompetently ruled by Baz Bahadur. Baz Bahadur was a talented musician but had no ability to govern an area, and many of the people of the area had fled to Mughal territories, alerting the Mughals to the possibility of taking the area. As the army of Adham Khan approached Baz Bahadur fled, leaving behind his wealth and his wives in their Harem, and instructions that they were to be killed if the city of Sarangpur (now a part of the Rajgarh District) fell to the Mughals. However, despite the best attempts by the Eunuch in charge of the Harem, many of the women survived; even Rupmati, who was famed through many of Baz Bahadurs songs for her beauty, survived multiple slash wounds to be captured by the invading Mughals. However, when Adham Khan came to claim his prize, Rupmati drank poison rather than be raped by Akbar's brother.
However, aside from this instance when he was thwarted, Adham engaged in some thoroughly grotesque abuses of the captured Harem and populace. The least attractive members of the women were brought before the senior members of the invading army and killed, as they drank alcohol, took opium pellets, and generally treated the event as if it were a festive occasion. Badauni records that on at least one occasion members present tried to stop the slaughter but were shackled. The slaughter was not only of the women in the harem, and Badauni records that "Sayyids and Sheikhs came out to meet him with their Qur'ans in hand, but Khan put them all to death and burnt them". Besides, Adham kept the vast majority of the wealth and captives for himself and sent a mere three elephants to his Emperor. Along with the elephants, Akbar received word of what Adham had done, and became enraged. He decided to ride out to Malwar himself, along with a small band of loyal soldiers, racing and beating a group of courtiers sent by Maham Anga to warn Adham of Akbar's rage.
Adham became terrified and quickly begged for Akbar's forgiveness. Akbar forgave him, and received the booty he had seized. However, Adham secretly kept two of the women he decided were the most attractive in his own Harem. When Akbar found out about this, Maham Anga killed the women, fearing what they might reveal about Adham to Akbar.
These events left Akbar with no option but to begin assuming absolute control for himself. The conflict came to a head when in 1562, Atkah Khan, an Afghan appointed by Akbar to be the equivalent of Prime Minister, was dealing with affairs of his position when Adham burst forth, had Atkah Khan stabbed, and tried to storm the Harem of Akbar. The Eunuch who guarded the section went in, closed the door and locked it from the inside. Akbar became aware of the disturbance, and entered the room. Here Adham laid his hand on his foster brother's arm, a sign of apparent disrespect, to which Akbar responded by punching him in the face, possibly knocking him unconscious. Seeing his Prime Minister stabbed, Akbar had had enough of Adham and ordered that he be thrown from a height, over a parapet. This failed to kill him, so Akbar ensured that the second attempt succeed by ordering he be dropped head first. Akbar then went straight to Maham Anga and informed her that her son was dead. With this act, the 19 year old Akbar assumed complete control over his empire
Akbar and Bairam Khan
Akbar was only 13 years old when he became emperor, and so his general ruled on
his behalf till he came of age. The regency belonged to Bairam Khan, a Shia
Turkoman noble who successfully dealt with pretenders to the throne and improved
the discipline of the Mughal armies. He ensured power was centralised and was
able to expand the empires boundaries with orders from the capital. These moves
helped to consolidate Mughal power in the newly recovered empire.
Respect for Bairam's regency was not, however, universal. There were many people plotting his demise in order to assume the apparent absolute rule they saw in him. Much was written, critically, of his religion. The majority of the early court were Sunni Muslims, and Bairam's Shia'ism was disliked. Bairam knew about this, and perhaps even to spite that, appointed a Shia Sheikh, Gadai to become the Administrator General, one of the more important roles in the empire. Further Bairam lived a rather opulent lifestyle, which appeared to be even more excessive than that of Akbar.
The most serious of those opposed to Bairam was Maham Anga, Akbar's aunt, chief nurse and mother of his foster brother, Adham Khan. Maham was both shrewd and manipulative and hoped to rule herself by proxy through her son. In March 1560 the pair of them urged Akbar to visit them in Delhi, leaving Bairam in the capital, Agra. While in Delhi Akbar was bombarded by people who told him he was now ready to take full control of the empire and to dismiss Bairam. He was persuaded to fund an excursion for Bairam to go on Hajj to Mecca, which was to act, essentially, as a form of ostracism. Bairam was shocked at the news from Delhi, but was loyal to Akbar, and despite Akbars refusal to even meet with the General, refused the suggestions by some of his commanders to march on Delhi and "rescue" Akbar.
Bairam left for Mecca, but was quickly met by an army sent by Adham Khan, but approved by Akbar, which was sent to "escort" him from the Mughal territories. Bairam saw this as the last straw, and led an attack on the army, but was captured and sent as a rebel back to Akbar to be sentenced. Bairam Khan, whose military genius had seen the Mughals regain their lands in India, who had served both Humayun and Akbar loyally, and laid the foundation for a strong empire, was now before the emperor as a prisoner. Maham Anga urged Akbar to execute Bairam, but Akbar refused. Instead, in defiance of Anga, he laid down full honours to the General, and gave him robes of honour, and agreed to fund him a proper Hajj excursion. However, shortly after Bairam Khan's Hajj journey got underway, just before he reached the port city of Khambhat (then known as "Cambay") he encountered an Afghan whose father had been killed five years earlier in a battle led by Bairam. The Afgan saw a chance to reap vengeance, and promptly stabbed Bairam, who died on January 31, 1561.
Respect for Bairam's regency was not, however, universal. There were many people plotting his demise in order to assume the apparent absolute rule they saw in him. Much was written, critically, of his religion. The majority of the early court were Sunni Muslims, and Bairam's Shia'ism was disliked. Bairam knew about this, and perhaps even to spite that, appointed a Shia Sheikh, Gadai to become the Administrator General, one of the more important roles in the empire. Further Bairam lived a rather opulent lifestyle, which appeared to be even more excessive than that of Akbar.
The most serious of those opposed to Bairam was Maham Anga, Akbar's aunt, chief nurse and mother of his foster brother, Adham Khan. Maham was both shrewd and manipulative and hoped to rule herself by proxy through her son. In March 1560 the pair of them urged Akbar to visit them in Delhi, leaving Bairam in the capital, Agra. While in Delhi Akbar was bombarded by people who told him he was now ready to take full control of the empire and to dismiss Bairam. He was persuaded to fund an excursion for Bairam to go on Hajj to Mecca, which was to act, essentially, as a form of ostracism. Bairam was shocked at the news from Delhi, but was loyal to Akbar, and despite Akbars refusal to even meet with the General, refused the suggestions by some of his commanders to march on Delhi and "rescue" Akbar.
Bairam left for Mecca, but was quickly met by an army sent by Adham Khan, but approved by Akbar, which was sent to "escort" him from the Mughal territories. Bairam saw this as the last straw, and led an attack on the army, but was captured and sent as a rebel back to Akbar to be sentenced. Bairam Khan, whose military genius had seen the Mughals regain their lands in India, who had served both Humayun and Akbar loyally, and laid the foundation for a strong empire, was now before the emperor as a prisoner. Maham Anga urged Akbar to execute Bairam, but Akbar refused. Instead, in defiance of Anga, he laid down full honours to the General, and gave him robes of honour, and agreed to fund him a proper Hajj excursion. However, shortly after Bairam Khan's Hajj journey got underway, just before he reached the port city of Khambhat (then known as "Cambay") he encountered an Afghan whose father had been killed five years earlier in a battle led by Bairam. The Afgan saw a chance to reap vengeance, and promptly stabbed Bairam, who died on January 31, 1561.
Clash with Hemu
Early into Akbar's career, he decided that he should eliminate the threat of
Sher Shah's dynasty, and decided to lead an army against the strongest of the
three, Sikandar Shah Suri, in the Punjab. He left the city of Delhi under the
regency of Tardi Beg Khan.
Sikandar Shah Suri presented no major concern for Akbar, and often withdrew from territory as Akbar approached; however, back in Delhi Hemu, a low-caste Hindu warrior, succeeded in launching a surprise attack on the unprepared Tardi Beg Khan, who promptly fled the city. Hemu, who had launched the attack on behalf of Adil Shah Suri, one of Sikandar's brothers, had won 22 successive battles and appointed himself ruler, or Raja Vikramaditya, instead Adil Shah.
Word of the capitulation of Delhi spread quickly to the new Mughal ruler, and he was advised to withdraw to Kabul, which was relatively secure. However, Bairam Khan differed and urged Akbar to fight the invaders and reclaim the capital. Akbar sided with Bairam, and began to march on Delhi. In order to bolster troop morale, Akbar took the curious step of ordering that someone "prepare fireworks as a treat for the soldiers" and that one should "make an image of Hemu, fill it with gunpowder, and set it on fire". On the march forward, he was joined by Tardi Beg and his retreating troops, who also urged him to retreat to Kabul, but Akbar refused again; later, Bairam Khan had the former regent executed for cowardice, though Abul Fazl and Jahangir both record that they believed that Bairam Khan was merely using the retreat from Kabul as an excuse to eliminate a rival.
On November 5, 1556 Akbar's Mughal army defeated the numerically superior forces of General Hemu at the Second Battle of Panipat, fifty miles north of Delhi, thanks to a chance arrow into Hemu's eye. Hemu was brought before Akbar unconscious, and was beheaded. Some sources say that it was actually Bairam Khan who killed the man, but Akbar certainly did use the term "Ghazi", warrior for the faith, a term used by both Babur, his grandfather, and Timur when fighting the Kafir (non-Muslims) in India. Hemu's head was sent to Kabul while his body was displayed on a type of gallows specially constructed to display this dead body. Even more gruesomely Akbar followed an old Khanate tradition, one which pre-dates even Genghis Khan, and constructed a "victory pillar" made from the heads of the dead soldiers.
The victory also left Akbar with over 1,500 war elephants which he used to re-engage Sikandar Shah at the siege of Mankot. Sikandar surrendered and so was spared death, and lived the last remaining two years of his life on a large estate granted to him by Akbar. In 1557 the only other threat to Akbars rule, Adil Shah, brother of Sikandar, died during a battle in Bengal. Thus, by the time Akbar was 15 his rule over Hindustan was secured.
Sikandar Shah Suri presented no major concern for Akbar, and often withdrew from territory as Akbar approached; however, back in Delhi Hemu, a low-caste Hindu warrior, succeeded in launching a surprise attack on the unprepared Tardi Beg Khan, who promptly fled the city. Hemu, who had launched the attack on behalf of Adil Shah Suri, one of Sikandar's brothers, had won 22 successive battles and appointed himself ruler, or Raja Vikramaditya, instead Adil Shah.
Word of the capitulation of Delhi spread quickly to the new Mughal ruler, and he was advised to withdraw to Kabul, which was relatively secure. However, Bairam Khan differed and urged Akbar to fight the invaders and reclaim the capital. Akbar sided with Bairam, and began to march on Delhi. In order to bolster troop morale, Akbar took the curious step of ordering that someone "prepare fireworks as a treat for the soldiers" and that one should "make an image of Hemu, fill it with gunpowder, and set it on fire". On the march forward, he was joined by Tardi Beg and his retreating troops, who also urged him to retreat to Kabul, but Akbar refused again; later, Bairam Khan had the former regent executed for cowardice, though Abul Fazl and Jahangir both record that they believed that Bairam Khan was merely using the retreat from Kabul as an excuse to eliminate a rival.
On November 5, 1556 Akbar's Mughal army defeated the numerically superior forces of General Hemu at the Second Battle of Panipat, fifty miles north of Delhi, thanks to a chance arrow into Hemu's eye. Hemu was brought before Akbar unconscious, and was beheaded. Some sources say that it was actually Bairam Khan who killed the man, but Akbar certainly did use the term "Ghazi", warrior for the faith, a term used by both Babur, his grandfather, and Timur when fighting the Kafir (non-Muslims) in India. Hemu's head was sent to Kabul while his body was displayed on a type of gallows specially constructed to display this dead body. Even more gruesomely Akbar followed an old Khanate tradition, one which pre-dates even Genghis Khan, and constructed a "victory pillar" made from the heads of the dead soldiers.
The victory also left Akbar with over 1,500 war elephants which he used to re-engage Sikandar Shah at the siege of Mankot. Sikandar surrendered and so was spared death, and lived the last remaining two years of his life on a large estate granted to him by Akbar. In 1557 the only other threat to Akbars rule, Adil Shah, brother of Sikandar, died during a battle in Bengal. Thus, by the time Akbar was 15 his rule over Hindustan was secured.
Early years
Akbar was born at the Rajput Fortress of Umarkot in Sind where the Mughal
Emperor Humayun and his recently wedded wife, Hamida Banu Begum were taking
refuge. In 1540, Humayun had been driven into exile, following decisive battles,
by the Afghan leader Sher Shah. Akbar did not go to Persia with his parents, and
was raised for a time instead by his uncle Askari and his wife in the rugged
country of Afghanistan rather than in the splendor of the Persian court. He
spent his youth learning to hunt, run and fight, but he never learned to read or
write, the sole exception in Babur's line. Nonetheless, Akbar matured into a
well-informed ruler, with refined tastes in the arts, architecture and music, a
love for literature, and a breadth of vision that tolerated other opinions.
Following the chaos over the succession of Islam Shah (Sher Shah's son), Humayun reconquered Delhi in 1555, leading an army partly provided by his Persian ally Shah Tahmasp. Only a few months later, Humayun died from an accident. Akbar succeeded his father on February 14, 1556, while in the midst of a war against Sikandar Shah for the reclamation of the Mughal throne. Here, in Kalanaur the 13 year old Akbar donned a golden robe and Dark Tiara and sat on a newly constructed platform, which still stands, and was proclaimed "Shahanshah" (Persian for "King of Kings")
Following the chaos over the succession of Islam Shah (Sher Shah's son), Humayun reconquered Delhi in 1555, leading an army partly provided by his Persian ally Shah Tahmasp. Only a few months later, Humayun died from an accident. Akbar succeeded his father on February 14, 1556, while in the midst of a war against Sikandar Shah for the reclamation of the Mughal throne. Here, in Kalanaur the 13 year old Akbar donned a golden robe and Dark Tiara and sat on a newly constructed platform, which still stands, and was proclaimed "Shahanshah" (Persian for "King of Kings")
Biography of Jalaluddin-Akbar
Though only 13 when he ascended to the throne, he is
widely considered the greatest of the Mughal emperors. During his reign, he
eliminated external military threats from the Afghan descendants of Sher Shah
(an Afghan who was able to temporarily oust Humayun from 1540-1555), and at the
Second Battle of Panipat defeated the Hindu leader Hemu. In addition to his
military gains, the emperor solidified his rule by repealing the jizya tax on
non-Muslims and courting the favor of the powerful Rajput caste, to the extent
of marrying Rajput princesses.
However, Akbar's most lasting contributions were to the arts and to Indian religion. He initiated a large collection of literature, including the Akbar-nama and the Ain-i-Akbari, and incorporated art from around the world into the Mughal collections. He also commissioned the building of widely admired buildings, including the Panj Mahal. Having a greatly tolerant attitude toward religion, Akbar preserved Hindu temples. He also began a series of religious debates where Muslim scholars would debate religious matters with Sikhs, Hindus, Carvaka atheists and even Jesuits from the Vatican. He founded his own religion, the "Din-i-Elahi" or the "Divine Faith"; the religion, however, amounted only to a form of personality cult for Akbar, and quickly dissolved after his death.
However, Akbar's most lasting contributions were to the arts and to Indian religion. He initiated a large collection of literature, including the Akbar-nama and the Ain-i-Akbari, and incorporated art from around the world into the Mughal collections. He also commissioned the building of widely admired buildings, including the Panj Mahal. Having a greatly tolerant attitude toward religion, Akbar preserved Hindu temples. He also began a series of religious debates where Muslim scholars would debate religious matters with Sikhs, Hindus, Carvaka atheists and even Jesuits from the Vatican. He founded his own religion, the "Din-i-Elahi" or the "Divine Faith"; the religion, however, amounted only to a form of personality cult for Akbar, and quickly dissolved after his death.
EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM IN INDIA
The decline of the Mughal Empire caused a vacuum, which the Europeans were quick to capitalize on. The first Europeans to reach India by sea were the Portuguese who arrived in 1498. They formed a base at Goa in 1510. However in the 17th century the Portuguese declined and the English and Dutch took their place.
THE RISE OF THE MUGHAL EMPIRE
The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur, a descendant of Changez Khan. From 1504 he was ruler of part of what is now Afghanistan. From the Turks he had learned to use cannons. Guns helped him defeat the Indian kings who were still using traditional methods of warfare. Babur first raided India in 1517 and in 1525 he invaded. In 1526 Babur crushed the army of Ibrahim Lodi at the battle of Panipat.
Other Indian rulers now united against Babur but they were crushed at the battle of Khanau in 1527.
He was succeeded by his son Humayan 1508-1556. Humayan’s son Akbar is widely regarded as the greatest Mughal ruler. Akbar also reorganized the government and he created an efficient civil service. Akbar was a Muslim but he was tolerant in matters of religion. He abolished a tax previous rulers had levied on non-Muslims. Persian literature flourished in India during his reign. Persian and Hindu styles of painting merged to form a new style of Mughal painting.
Akbar was succeeded by his son Jahangir. Under him Mughal influence in the South of India increased and the empire flourished.
The Mughal Empire reached its zenith in the 17th century its only weakness being powers struggles among the ruling family and occasional rebellions. Shah Jahan became ruler in 1627. Under him the empire prospered. He is famous for building the Taj Mahal, erected as a memorial to his queen Mumatz Mahal. Work began on it in 1631 and it took craftsmen and laborers 22 years to build it, completing the edifice to love in 1653.
The next ruler Aurangzeb greatly expanded the empire. Under him the empire became so vast it was difficult for one man to rule. But unlike his predecessors, he was not religiously tolerant. In 1664 he banned the repair of Hindu temples and in 1669 he banned his subjects from building new ones. Also, in 1679 he reintroduced a poll tax on Hindus.
Aurangzeb was succeeded by his son Bahadur Shah Zafar, who died in 1712. He was the last Mughal emperor. By this time cracks were appearing in the empire. After 1712 powerful nobles in the empire began to break away and form virtually independent states.
Other Indian rulers now united against Babur but they were crushed at the battle of Khanau in 1527.
He was succeeded by his son Humayan 1508-1556. Humayan’s son Akbar is widely regarded as the greatest Mughal ruler. Akbar also reorganized the government and he created an efficient civil service. Akbar was a Muslim but he was tolerant in matters of religion. He abolished a tax previous rulers had levied on non-Muslims. Persian literature flourished in India during his reign. Persian and Hindu styles of painting merged to form a new style of Mughal painting.
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Akbar was succeeded by his son Jahangir. Under him Mughal influence in the South of India increased and the empire flourished.
The Mughal Empire reached its zenith in the 17th century its only weakness being powers struggles among the ruling family and occasional rebellions. Shah Jahan became ruler in 1627. Under him the empire prospered. He is famous for building the Taj Mahal, erected as a memorial to his queen Mumatz Mahal. Work began on it in 1631 and it took craftsmen and laborers 22 years to build it, completing the edifice to love in 1653.
The next ruler Aurangzeb greatly expanded the empire. Under him the empire became so vast it was difficult for one man to rule. But unlike his predecessors, he was not religiously tolerant. In 1664 he banned the repair of Hindu temples and in 1669 he banned his subjects from building new ones. Also, in 1679 he reintroduced a poll tax on Hindus.
Aurangzeb was succeeded by his son Bahadur Shah Zafar, who died in 1712. He was the last Mughal emperor. By this time cracks were appearing in the empire. After 1712 powerful nobles in the empire began to break away and form virtually independent states.
BRIEF HISTORY OF INDIA
India once again became a land of several kingdoms, which were frequently at war with each other. The three most important dynasties were the Rajputs, the Pallavas and the Chalukyas. However, in the 9th century a new empire arose in Southern India - the Cholas.
In the late 10th century the Chola king Rajaraja-I began to expand his kingdom. He conquered the neighboring kingdoms of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. The next king, Rajenda I took more territory, including the Ganges and the Andaman Islands. The Chola was a prosperous empire and trade with Southeast Asia and the Arabs thrived.
In the 10th century Turks from central Asia conquered Afghanistan. Under
their ruler Mahmud 971-1030, they conquered Punjab. He led raids deep into India and plundered temples. The Turks were able to conquer large parts of Northern India and they created a powerful state - the Delhi Sultanate.
Under the Sultan Qutubuddin and Iltumish, the Sultanate flourished. Iltumish was succeeded by his daughter Raziya. She reigned for only 3 years before she was murdered. But the Sultanate of Delhi declined rapidly in the late 14th century. The final blow came in 1498 when Timurlane, a descendent of Genghis Khan sacked Delhi and massacred most of the inhabitants. At around the same time, another empire arose in the South - the Vijayangar. The Vijayanagar Empire is named after its capital city. The rulers of Vijayanager gradually consolidated their empire, reaching a peak in the 16th century. By then a new empire had arisen - the Mughals.
In the late 10th century the Chola king Rajaraja-I began to expand his kingdom. He conquered the neighboring kingdoms of Sri Lanka and the Maldives. The next king, Rajenda I took more territory, including the Ganges and the Andaman Islands. The Chola was a prosperous empire and trade with Southeast Asia and the Arabs thrived.
In the 10th century Turks from central Asia conquered Afghanistan. Under
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Under the Sultan Qutubuddin and Iltumish, the Sultanate flourished. Iltumish was succeeded by his daughter Raziya. She reigned for only 3 years before she was murdered. But the Sultanate of Delhi declined rapidly in the late 14th century. The final blow came in 1498 when Timurlane, a descendent of Genghis Khan sacked Delhi and massacred most of the inhabitants. At around the same time, another empire arose in the South - the Vijayangar. The Vijayanagar Empire is named after its capital city. The rulers of Vijayanager gradually consolidated their empire, reaching a peak in the 16th century. By then a new empire had arisen - the Mughals.
Dubai to grow 4-5% in 2012
Dubai’s gross domestic economic product is projected to pick up and grow by
around 4-5 per cent in 2012, fuelled by strong performance of trade and other
non-hydrocarbon sectors, an official was reported on Saturday as saying.
The forecast growth is far higher than projections by most
other institutions, including the Washington-based Institute for International
Finance (IIF), which expects the emirate’s real GDP to swell by about 2.5 per
cent this year.
“Our projections show Dubai’s real GDP will grow by 4-5 per
cent this year compared with around three per cent in 2011,” said Ali Tawfiq Al
Sadeq, chief economist at Dubai’s Economic Council.
“Growth this year will be supported by expansion in overall
economic activities and strong performance of key sectors…this was shown in the
first quarter of 2012,” he told the semi official Arabic language daily
Alittihad.
Al Sadeq said his high forecasts for Dubai’s GDP were based
on the several factors, including the strength of the emirate’s trade sector and
other non-oil economies, expanding business opportunities, Dubai’s openness, an
improvement in global economies and revised projections by the IMF and the World
Bank for higher regional and global growth rates.
He said trade and other five key sectors, including tourism
and industry, account for nearly 96 per cent of Dubai’s GDP, the second largest
after Abu Dhabi. “These six sectors are expected to drive GDP growth this year
and I believe that investors will find great opportunities in the emirate in
2012.”
The Burj Al Arab
The Burj Al Arab, or the Tower of the Arabs, is a luxury hotel that sits on an artificial island. It is rumored to be the only 7 star property in the world and the most luxurious hotel you can visit. Currently, it is also the world's tallest structure, containing 28 floors. The least expensive accommodations are a hefty $1500 and the most luxurious cost up to $5000 per night. The cost is fitting when you consider the white columns, spiral staircase and fine dining.
The Al Muntaha restaurant inside has a 200 meter view from the seats by the windows and another restaurant in the hotel, Al Mahara, boasts a breathtaking aquarium. The hotel is so spectacular that it was voted one of the top ten restaurants in the world and it recently hired acclaimed chef Kevin McLaughlin.
The Al Muntaha restaurant inside has a 200 meter view from the seats by the windows and another restaurant in the hotel, Al Mahara, boasts a breathtaking aquarium. The hotel is so spectacular that it was voted one of the top ten restaurants in the world and it recently hired acclaimed chef Kevin McLaughlin.
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| The Burj Al Arab |
BURJ DUBAI
When completed, the Burj Dubai skyscraper will be the tallest man made structure on earth. Construction began in 2004 and is scheduled for completion by September of 2009. It will stand as the centerpiece of a large scale mixed use development consisting over 30,000 homes. The Burj Dubai has received international recognition for its architectural mastery and sheer size.
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| Burj dubai |
Growth of Dubai
In 1990, Dubai was little more than a Middle Eastern desert, earning its livelihood from the oil industry. Then, the Persian Gulf War took a great toll on Dubai's economy after a massive withdrawal of funds occurred due to Economic uncertainty.
During the remainder of the 90's, however, many foreign companies began moving business to Dubai. Due to this movement and the rising oil prices, Dubai began to concentrate on free trade and tourism to stimulate their economy. Throughout the next decade, numerous structures were erected. Today, Dubai is one of the largest tourist destinations in the world. To promote their new tourist based economy, the Dubai government put into motion several large construction projects. Many of the buildings that went up were among the largest in the world, the most luxurious, and the most unique.
During the remainder of the 90's, however, many foreign companies began moving business to Dubai. Due to this movement and the rising oil prices, Dubai began to concentrate on free trade and tourism to stimulate their economy. Throughout the next decade, numerous structures were erected. Today, Dubai is one of the largest tourist destinations in the world. To promote their new tourist based economy, the Dubai government put into motion several large construction projects. Many of the buildings that went up were among the largest in the world, the most luxurious, and the most unique.
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| 1993 |
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| 2003 |
Friday, May 11, 2012
OLD DUBAI
Looking up Dubai Creek towards the Maktoum Bridge, The Dubai Clock Tower is just
outside the picture on the left hand side, (don't worry I have it on another
slide), the same frenetic pace of life is obvious.
Up Dubai Creek 1995. Impossible to see the Clock Tower, even if it was not off the picture, all these big buildings spoil the view - don't they, just as well they can't build any in the Creek. Note the bridge is now doubled up.
This photo links up with the previous old one showing the view up the creek and
although the 1995 one is all skyscapers and so I have not included it, this one
shows the view all the way to the Dubai Clock Tower. It is just to the right of
centre almost on the horizon. Very clear on the enlargement. I drove right by
the Clock Tower a few weeks ago and almost missed it as it so surrounded by new
buildings. It was all pretty open in 1965!
Up Dubai Creek 1995. Impossible to see the Clock Tower, even if it was not off the picture, all these big buildings spoil the view - don't they, just as well they can't build any in the Creek. Note the bridge is now doubled up.
A closeup of the Clock Tower in all it's splendour, long before
it became surrounded by high rise buildings and almost lost in the concrete
jungle. This picture was taken by John Smith, an old friend of mine when he was
in Dubai in about 1967. I don't know if it could be improved, but he emailed it
to me and it is not very high resolution.
Dubai AT 80's
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| CLOCK TOWER AT 80'S |
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| Sheikh zayed road at 80's |
INTRODUCTION
This is Muhammed Amin from Pakistan and currently i am studying in Middlesex University,Dubai. I am here to respresent my blog to share some facts and history to give the users good knowledge and increase their awareness.
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